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▀▄█▌ Classical Sociological Theory 1

░▒▓ CHAPTER 1 A Historical Sketch of Sociological Theory: The Early Years 1
■ Introduction 2
■ Social Forces in the Development of Sociological Theory 5
■ Political Revolutions 5
■ The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Capitalism 5
■ The Rise of Socialism 6
■ Feminism 6
■ Urbanization 7
■ Religious Change 7
■ The Growth of Science 8
■ Intellectual Forces and the Rise of Sociological Theory 8
■ The Enlightenment 8
■ The Conservative Reaction to the Enlightenment 9
■ The Development of French Sociology 11
■ Alexis de Tocqueville (1805–1859) 11
■ Claude Henri Saint-Simon (1760–1825) 14
■ Auguste Comte (1798–1857) 15
■ Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) 19
■ The Development of German Sociology 21
■ The Roots and Nature of the Theories of Karl Marx (1818–1883) 21
■ The Roots and Nature of the Theories of Max Weber (1864–1920) and Georg Simmel (1858–1918) 26
■ The Origins of British Sociology 32
■ Political Economy, Ameliorism, and Social Evolution 34
■ Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) 36
■ The Key Figure in Early Italian Sociology 39
■ Turn-of-the-Century Developments in European Marxism 40

░▒▓ CHAPTER 2 Karl Marx 43
■ Introduction 43
■ The Dialectic 45
■ Dialectical Method 46
■ Fact and Value 46
■ Reciprocal Relations 46
■ Past, Present, Future 47
■ No Inevitabilities 47
■ Actors and Structures 48
■ Human Potential 48
■ Labor 52
■ Alienation 53
■ The Structures of Capitalist Society 56
■ Commodities 57
■ Fetishism of Commodities 58
■ Capital, Capitalists, and the Proletariat 59
■ Exploitation 60
■ Class Conflict 62
■ Capitalism as a Good Thing 64
■ Materialist Conception of History 65
■ Cultural Aspects of Capitalist Society 67
■ Ideology 67
■ Religion 70
■ Marx’s Economics: A Case Study 70
■ Communism 73
■ Criticisms 73

░▒▓ CHAPTER 3 Emile Durkheim 76
■ Introduction 76
■ Social Facts 77
■ Material and Nonmaterial Social Facts 79
■ Types of Nonmaterial Social Facts 80
■ The Division of Labor in Society 84
■ Mechanical and Organic Solidarity 85
■ Dynamic Density 88
■ Repressive and Restitutive Law 89
■ Normal and Pathological 90
■ Justice 91
■ Suicide 92
■ The Four Types of Suicide 93
■ Suicide Rates and Social Reform 96
■ The Elementary Forms of Religious Life 97
■ Early and Late Durkheimian Theory 97
■ Theory of Religion—The Sacred and the Profane 98
■ Why Primitive? 100
■ Totemism 100
■ Sociology of Knowledge 101
■ Collective Effervescence 102
■ Moral Education and Social Reform 103
■ Morality 104
■ Moral Education 105
■ Occupational Associations 106
■ Criticisms 107
■ Functionalism and Positivism 107
■ Other Criticisms 108

░▒▓ CHAPTER 4 Max Weber 112
■ Methodology 113
■ History and Sociology 113
■ Verstehen 116
■ Causality 118
■ Ideal Types 119
■ Values 121
■ Substantive Sociology 124
■ What Is Sociology? 124
■ Social Action 125
■ Class, Status, and Party 127
■ Structures of Authority 128
■ Rationalization 136
■ Religion and the Rise of Capitalism 146
■ Criticisms 154

░▒▓ CHAPTER 5 Georg Simmel 158
■ Primary Concerns 158
■ Levels and Areas of Concern 159
■ Dialectical Thinking 162
■ Individual Consciousness 164
■ Social Interaction (“Association”) 165
■ Interaction: Forms and Types 166
■ Social Structures 171
■ Objective Culture 172
■ The Philosophy of Money 174
■ Money and Value 175
■ Money, Reification, and Rationalization 176
■ Negative Effects 178
■ The Tragedy of Culture 179
■ Secrecy: A Case Study in Simmel’s Sociology 181
■ Secrecy and Social Relationships 182
■ Other Thoughts on Secrecy 184
■ Criticisms 185



▀▄█▌ Modern Sociological Theory: The Major Schools 189

░▒▓ CHAPTER 6 A Historical Sketch of Sociological Theory: The Later Years 189
■ Early American Sociological Theory 190
■ Politics 190
■ Social Change and Intellectual Currents 192
■ The Chicago School 199
■ Women in Early Sociology 205
■ W.E.B. Du Bois and Race Theory 206
■ Sociological Theory to Midcentury 207
■ The Rise of Harvard, the Ivy League, and Structural Functionalism 207
■ The Chicago School in Decline 211
■ Developments in Marxian Theory 212
■ Karl Mannheim and the Sociology of Knowledge 213
■ Sociological Theory from Midcentury 214
■ Structural Functionalism: Peak and Decline 214
■ Radical Sociology in America: C. Wright Mills 214
■ The Development of Conflict Theory 215
■ The Birth of Exchange Theory 217
■ Dramaturgical Analysis: The Work of Erving Goffman 218
■ The Development of Sociologies of Everyday Life 219
■ The Rise and Fall (?) of Marxian Sociology 220
■ The Challenge of Feminist Theory 222
■ Structuralism and Poststructuralism 223
■ Late-Twentieth-Century Developments in Sociological Theory 224
■ Micro-Macro Integration 224
■ Agency-Structure Integration 224
■ Theoretical Syntheses 226
■ Theories of Modernity and Postmodernity 226
■ The Defenders of Modernity 226
■ The Proponents of Postmodernity 227
■ Theories to Watch in the Early Twenty-first Century 228
■ Multicultural Social Theory, Queer Theory, and Critical Theories of Race and Racism 228
■ Postmodern and Post-Postmodern Social Theories 230
■ Theories of Consumption 231
■ Theories of Globalization 231
■ Actor-Network Theory 233
■ Practice Theory 233

░▒▓ CHAPTER 7 Structural Functionalism, Neofunctionalism, and Conflict Theory 236
■ Structural Functionalism 237
■ The Functional Theory of Stratification and Its Critics 238
■ Talcott Parsons’s Structural Functionalism 240
■ Robert Merton’s Structural Functionalism 252
■ The Major Criticisms 258
■ Neofunctionalism 260
■ Conflict Theory 265
■ The Work of Ralf Dahrendorf 265
■ The Major Criticisms and Efforts to Deal with Them 269
■ A More Integrative Conflict Theory 270

░▒▓ CHAPTER 8 Varieties of Neo-Marxian Theory 277
■ Economic Determinism 277
■ Hegelian Marxism 278
■ Georg Lukács 279
■ Antonio Gramsci 281
■ Critical Theory 282
■ The Major Critiques of Social and Intellectual Life 282
■ The Major Contributions 286
■ Criticisms of Critical Theory 290
■ The Ideas of Jurgen Habermas 290
■ Critical Theory Today: the Work of Axel Honneth 294
■ Later Developments in Cultural Critique 296
■ Neo-Marxian Economic Sociology 297
■ Capital and Labor 297
■ Fordism and Post-Fordism 303
■ Historically Oriented Marxism 305
■ The Modern World-System 305
■ Neo-Marxian Spatial Analysis 310
■ The Production of Space 311
■ Trialectics 314
■ Spaces of Hope 315
■ Post-Marxist Theory 317
■ Analytical Marxism 318
■ Postmodern Marxian Theory 323
■ After Marxism 326
■ Criticisms of Post-Marxism 328

░▒▓ CHAPTER 9 Systems Theory 331
■ Sociology and Modern Systems Theory 331
■ Gains from Systems Theory 331
■ Some General Principles 332
■ Applications to the Social World 333
■ Niklas Luhmann’s General System Theory 335
■ Autopoietic Systems 336
■ Society and Psychic Systems 338
■ Double Contingency 339
■ Evolution of Social Systems 341
■ Differentiation 342
■ Luhmann’s Sociology of Knowledge 347
■ Criticisms 348

░▒▓ CHAPTER 10 Symbolic Interactionism 351
■ The Major Historical Roots 351
■ Pragmatism 351
■ Behaviorism 352
■ Between Reductionism and Sociologism 354
■ The Ideas of George Herbert Mead 355
■ The Priority of the Social 355
■ The Act 356
■ Gestures 359
■ Significant Symbols 360
■ Mind 362
■ Self 362
■ Society 367
■ Symbolic Interactionism: The Basic Principles 369
■ Capacity for Thought 369
■ Thinking and Interaction 370
■ Learning Meanings and Symbols 371
■ Action and Interaction 372
■ Making Choices 372
■ The Self and the Work of Erving Goffman 373
■ Groups and Societies 382
■ Criticisms 384
■ Toward a More Synthetic and Integrative Symbolic Interactionism 385
■ Redefining Mead 385
■ Micro-Macro Integration 387
■ The Future of Symbolic Interactionism 388

░▒▓ CHAPTER 11 Ethnomethodology 391
■ Defining Ethnomethodology 391
■ The Diversification of Ethnomethodology 395
■ Studies of Institutional Settings 395
■ Conversation Analysis 396
■ Some Early Examples 397
■ Breaching Experiments 397
■ Accomplishing Gender 399
■ Conversation Analysis 400
■ Telephone Conversations: Identification and Recognition 400
■ Initiating Laughter 401
■ Generating Applause 402
■ Booing 403
■ The Interactive Emergence of Sentences and Stories 404
■ Integration of Talk and Nonvocal Activities 405
■ Doing Shyness (and Self-Confidence) 406
■ Studies of Institutions 407
■ Job Interviews 407
■ Executive Negotiations 407
■ Calls to Emergency Centers 408
■ Dispute Resolution in Mediation Hearings 408
■ Criticisms of Traditional Sociology 410
■ Separated from the Social 410
■ Confusing Topic and Resource 411
■ Stresses and Strains in Ethnomethodology 412
■ Synthesis and Integration 413
■ Ethnomethodology and the Micro-Macro Order 414

░▒▓ CHAPTER 12 Exchange, Network, and Rational Choice Theories 416
■ Exchange Theory 416
■ Behaviorism 416
■ Rational Choice Theory 417
■ The Exchange Theory of George Homans 420
■ Peter Blau’s Exchange Theory 427
■ The Work of Richard Emerson and His Disciples 431
■ Network Theory 437
■ Basic Concerns and Principles 438
■ A More Integrative Network Theory 440
■ Network Exchange Theory 441
■ Structural Power 442
■ Strong and Weak Power Structures 443
■ Rational Choice Theory 444
■ Foundations of Social Theory 445
■ Criticisms 451

░▒▓ CHAPTER 13 Contemporary Feminist Theory 454
■ Feminism’s Basic Questions 454
■ Historical Framing: Feminism, Sociology, and Gender 457
■ Varieties of Contemporary Feminist Theory 460
■ Gender Difference 461
■ Sociological Theories: Institutional and Interactionist 464
■ Gender Inequality 466
■ Gender Oppression 470
■ Structural Oppression 475
■ Feminism and Postmodernism 485
■ Feminist Sociological Theorizing 488
■ A Feminist Sociology of Knowledge 488
■ The Macro-Social Order 490
■ The Micro-Social Order 492
■ Subjectivity 495



▀▄█▌ Recent Integrative Developments in Sociological Theory 499

░▒▓ CHAPTER 14 Micro-Macro and Agency-Structure Integration 499
■ Micro-Macro Integration 500
■ Micro-Macro Extremism 500
■ The Movement toward Micro-Macro Integration 501
■ Examples of Micro-Macro Integration 502
■ Back to the Future: Norbert Elias’s Figurational Sociology 510
■ Agency-Structure Integration 520
■ Major Examples of Agency-Structure Integration 521
■ Major Differences in the Agency- Structure Literature 542
■ Agency-Structure and Micro-Macro Linkages: Fundamental Differences 544
■ PART IV From Modern to Postmodern Social Theory (and Beyond) 547

░▒▓ CHAPTER 15 Contemporary Theories of Modernity 547
■ Classical Theorists on Modernity 547
■ The Juggernaut of Modernity 549
■ Modernity and Its Consequences 551
■ Modernity and Identity 554
■ Modernity and Intimacy 555
■ The Risk Society 556
■ Creating the Risks 557
■ Coping with the Risks 558
■ The Holocaust and Liquid Modernity 559
■ A Product of Modernity 559
■ The Role of Bureaucracy 560
■ The Holocaust and Rationalization 561
■ Liquid Modernity 563
■ Modernity’s Unfinished Project 564
■ Habermas versus Postmodernists 568
■ Informationalism and the Network Society 569

░▒▓ CHAPTER 16 Globalization Theory 574
■ Major Contemporary Theorists on Globalization 576
■ Anthony Giddens on the “Runaway World” of Globalization 576
■ Ulrich Beck, the Politics of Globalization, and Cosmopolitanism 577
■ Zygmunt Bauman on the Human Consequences of Globalization 579
■ Cultural Theory 580
■ Cultural Differentialism 580
■ Cultural Convergence 583
■ Cultural Hybridization 588
■ Economic Theory 591
■ Transnational Capitalism 591
■ Empire 592
■ Political Theory 595
■ Neoliberalism 598
■ Critiquing Neoliberalism 601
■ Other Theories 603

░▒▓ CHAPTER 17 Structuralism, Poststructuralism, and Postmodern Social Theory 605
■ Structuralism 606
■ Roots in Linguistics 607
■ Anthropological Structuralism: Claude Lévi-Strauss 607
■ Structural Marxism 608
■ Poststructuralism 609
■ The Ideas of Michel Foucault 611
■ The Ideas of Giorgio Agamben 621
■ Postmodern Social Theory 628
■ Moderate Postmodern Social Theory: Fredric Jameson 632
■ Extreme Postmodern Social Theory: Jean Baudrillard 637
■ Postmodern Social Theory and Sociological Theory 639
■ Criticisms and Post-Postmodern Social Theory 640

░▒▓ CHAPTER 18 Cutting-Edge Developments in Contemporary Theory 645
■ Queer Theory 645
■ What Is It? 646
■ Where Did It Come From? 648
■ Critiques and Potential Solutions 651
■ Critical Theories of Race and Racism 652
■ Actor-Network Theory, Posthumanism, and Postsociality 656
■ Practice Theory 661



▀▄█▌ Sociological Metatheorizing and a Metatheoretical Schema for Analyzing Sociological Theory A-1
■ Metatheorizing in Sociology A-1
■ Pierre Bourdieu’s Reflexive Sociology A-5
■ The Ideas of Thomas Kuhn A-7
■ Sociology: A Multiple-Paradigm Science A-11
■ The Social-Facts Paradigm A-11
■ The Social-Definition Paradigm A-11
■ The Social-Behavior Paradigm A-12
■ Toward a More Integrated Sociological Paradigm A-12
■ Levels of Social Analysis: An Overview
References R-1
Credits C-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-1

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